ASEAN DEFENSE POLICIES AND EXPENDITURES Without a perception of a common threat from China and in the presence of the continuing tensions and disputes among ASEAN

Without a perception of a common threat from China and in the presence of the continuing tensions and disputes among ASEAN countries, intra-ASEAN defense cooperation remains limited. Over the past decade, all ASEAN decisions related to defense expenditures, weapon acquisitions, and force modernization have been made on a national basis without intra-ASEAN coordination, reflecting ASEAN interest in defense cooperation to promote “confidence-building” rather than functional cooperation to achieve a common defense objective.1 Furthermore, although apprehensions about Chinese intentions have influenced the defense policies and programs of some ASEAN states, many of the ASEAN states’ defense expenditures and programs stem primarily from domestic political considerations; intra-ASEAN tensions; the desire to combat piracy, smuggling, and drug trafficking; and the growing interest in monitoring and protecting EEZs and fishing areas.